Level III

Chapter 4
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IC3

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Language Lessons
Assessment

Topic: Health/ Sức Khoẻ

Guiding Question:

How do you acquire and use knowledge in your culture?

Câu hỏi hướng dẫn:

Làm thế nào để tiếp thu và sử dụng tri thức trong nền văn hoá của bạn?

Skills:

In this chapter you will do these things:

English Language Skills:

Critical Thinking and Bloom’s Taxonomy
Vocabulary for Conflict, Peace and Non-Violence
5 Methods for Notetaking from Reading: The Cornell Method, Outlining, Mapping, Charting, The Sentence Method

Vietnamese Language Skills:

IC3 Skills: Critical Thinking: Imagine Possible Futures and Peace Education

Taking It Further:

Asian Philosophy and Critical Thinking
Post-Conflict Education

Appendix: Glossary of Important Terms for Peace Education

Intercultural Communicative Competence

Critical Thinking: Imagine Possible Futures and Peace Education

In the English section of this chapter, students learn about some aspects of Critical Thinking in relation to Peace Education. Critical Thinking, perhaps, is a non-traditional way of teaching and learning in many parts of the world, but tends to be embraced as essential to learning in North America. This student-centered method of teaching is central in much of the literature pertaining to Peace Education. Therefore, you are asked to consider these questions:

What is peace?
Can peace be taught?
Is critical thinking an effective method for teaching peace?
Is critical thinking a method that can be embraced by educators around the world?
Are there other ways to teach peace that may be more compatible to your culture?

First, participate in the following activity.

Activity

This activity is called Imaging Possible Futures and is centered on using imagination to free the mind and envision possibilities for the future of the planet. Students should be reminded that in this exercise, there are no-right-or-wrong answers. The ability to imagine alternative possibilities is a useful skill in many school subjects such as mathematics, science, writing, and the arts.

Step 1: The class will be entering the world of 2030 by way their imagination. To get comfortable in the imaging mode, choose a personal memory to re-experience from your recent past or from your early childhood. The memory should be a good one, and one that you enjoy reliving. Think about all the details of the setting including the people involved, the sights, the smells, the sounds and the feel of the place. Make some notes or sketches about the memory if necessary.

Step 2: After a few minutes of individual imagining, choose a partner and share some of the details of the memory. Share all the details of the environment and what is happening in the memory. You need not focus on describing why it is a good memory, only on describing it so that your partner can also feel what it was like. Each partner takes a turn.

Step 3: Now it is time to move to the future, the year 2030. First, focus on peace. What would peace look like, what would it feel like? How would a peaceful society operate? What is your personal hope for peace? Think about peace and write down a goal statement that expresses your personal hopes for a peaceful future. Statements should be two or three sentences long.

Step 4: Next, "remember the future" in the same way you remembered past memories. Keeping in mind your goal statements, allow your mind to envision the world in which your hopes have been realized. You are an observer, stepping into the peaceful year 2030 to look and see what is there. What do you find?

Some questions to consider: What are people like—the children, the elderly, men, women, young adults? What kind of housing is there? What do families look like? What do buildings and structures look like? How would they describe the physical environment? What is the government like? How are local decisions made and carried out? How do people travel or make connections across long distances? How do people of different ages learn things? How are local and long-distance conflicts and differences approached and handled? Is anyone playing? How do they play? What kinds of entertainment do people enjoy?

Remember, you are not trying to predict a realistic or probable world of 2030 in this exercise. You are envisioning possible alternative futures based on your hopes and fantasies about peace and justice. Do not think, "but this could never happen…" and instead let go of what you think is possible in order to dream. Record your observations.

Step 5: Describe to your class what you see in the year 2030. Listen carefully to each other and ask questions only to clarify what was said. Discuss your various visions.

Step 6: With the class, discern which visions are interesting and which are descriptive of a world that several in the class can agree with. Post these visions and discuss them cross culturally.

Step 7: Finally, discuss what should be done today in order to enable the vision of the future.

Source: This Learning Activity is adapted from "A Workbook for Imagining a World Without Weapons," in Boulding, Elise, Building a Global Civic Culture: Education for an Interdependent World, Syracuse University Press, 1990, pp. 172-176. She also cites Warren Ziegler’s Mindbook for Imaging a World Without Weapons published by Ziegler’s Futures Invention Associates. http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/peace/frame3_5.htm

This activity is a way of engaging in critical thinking. That is, it is an activity that requires students to think “outside of the box” or to think in alternative ways. It is an activity that requires students to draw on their own experience and knowledge and to problem-solve. Consider the ideas that are presented in the following article. To what extent are Westerners being imperialistic with their ideas of what peace education is and the use of critical thinking methods of teaching peace. There are more articles in this vein to consider in the Taking It Further section.

This article is written about Asian students going to Australia to study. You can substitute “ America,” “The UK,” or “ Canada” wherever you see “ Australia.”

International Education Journal
Vol 5, No 3, 2004
http://iej.cjb.net

http://72.14.209.104/search?q=cache:Yp5pYL4xAL4J:ehlt.flinders.edu.au/education/iej/articles/v5n3/vandermensbrugghe/paper.pdf+critical

+thinking+vs.+rote+learning&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=45&gl=us

The Unbearable Vagueness of Critical Thinking in the Context of the Anglo-Saxonisation of Education

Joelle Vandermensbrugghe
University of Canberra jrm@comedu.canberra.edu.au

This paper examines the stereotypical view that Asian students cannot think critically. Although critical thinking is often presented as a generic skill, crucial to success at university, definitions of the concept vary widely. Critical thinking can therefore only be understood by placing it into the context in which it is used. This disadvantages many international students, who often have not acquired the cultural competencies necessary to read in context, and who are unfamiliar with the concept of critical thinking as a learning experience. This paper also advocates more clarity and openness about learning practices, including critical thinking, and recommends more receptiveness towards learning practices adopted in other countries. If Australia wants to continue to attract international students and to be considered as offering a truly international education program, there is a real need for academic staff to develop intercultural competencies. critical thinking, international students, internationalization of education, intercultural competencies, learning practices

INTRODUCTION

Australian universities, largely for economic reasons, are enrolling more and more international students. Adapting to study in Australia is often a big challenge for those students. To adapt to and do well in the Australian education system, international students have to acquire competency not only in the English language, but also in Australian educational practices, which are largely culturally defined. Critical thinking, as one of these practices, lies at the core of university study in Australia.

This paper examines critical thinking as one of the practices embedded in Australian education. It acknowledges that the concept, because of its multiple meanings can only be understood in context. As such, critical thinking only appears to cause problems for international students who are unfamiliar with the concept and unable to recognize it in context. Despite this, critical thinking is presented as a key skill by the Australian education system.

This paper further argues that more openness to critical thinking as a learning practice and a better understanding of learning practices that exist in other countries might be a better solution than the traditional stereotyping of international students as rote learners.

Australian academics appear to demonstrate very little knowledge of education practices in other countries. There seems to be an entrenched belief that Australian practices are somehow better than those existing in other countries. There is also a need for Australian academics to understand and accept that different educational systems have their own conventions. Therefore, it is necessary for academics to consider international students not as students disabled by their lack of familiarity with English and the learning conventions that exist in Australia, but as students who come with different strengths who have a contribution to make.

THE INTERNATIONALISATION OR ANGLO-SAXONISATION OF EDUCATION

International students come to Australia with expectations that come from their past experience and, whether they realize it or not, they must learn to adapt to new circumstances in order to succeed academically. This includes incorporating priorities formulated by the Australian education system and often adapting to new ways of studying and preparing assignments.

Because most Australian academics are so familiar with Australian, or more generally Anglo-Saxon university practices, they present these practices as being natural and often assume that the conventions surrounding these practices are either universally known, or that they should be universally applied. Since Western Anglo-Saxon countries (mainly the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia) are instrumental in the internationalization of education, there is a trend towards the universalisation of the education practices of Western Anglo-Saxon countries.

The internationalization of education has also been called Westernization of education (Biggs, 1997, p.5). In practice it is much more an Anglo-Saxonisation of education. Many Anglo-Saxon writers, for example, Biggs (1997) and Ryan (2000) focus on the educational differences between Western and non-Western cultures, but appear to disregard the complexity and diversity of Western education practices. The implication that all Western cultures adopt English or American conventions and standards is far from true. Sullivan’s (2002) research into cultural and societal differences in assessment across Europe is indicative of the diversity in assessment and teaching styles that exist within Europe itself.

Overall, international students favor English-speaking countries as places to study. There is clearly an increasing worldwide demand for study in English-speaking countries. Educational institutions in those countries offer both a study and also a cultural program in English, which has very much developed as the international language. It is mainly for this reason that students from non-English-speaking countries are prepared to pay a lot of money to study in an English-speaking country. Thereby they hope to acquire internationally recognized linguistic and cultural competencies, which can be very useful in a global context. In many countries, obtaining an English degree is seen as the ideal path to preparing young people as individuals and as citizens to operate in the global village marketplace. Many international students also recognize the importance of a degree from an English-speaking country as a passport for the world.

The Australian education sector has been quick to respond to this demand by offering fee-paying courses to international students, thus attracting large numbers of students, particularly from Asia. The fact that those international students are mainly seen as lucrative business opportunities conflicts with education principles and does not recognize any other potential inputs, such as alternative frameworks for learning theory.

THE NECESSITY TO ADAPT TO DIFFERENT LEARNING PRACTICES

Too often Australian academics portray international students, particularly Asian students, as not being able to reach the high standards existing in Australia. Asian students regularly are the objects of stereotyping, but the extent to which these stereotypes fit reality can and has been debated (Ellwood, 2000). Therefore, in general, international students continue to be widely criticized for their poor English skills, for their inability to think critically, for their propensity to memorize rather than to learn through understanding, and for their extensive practice of plagiarism. Underlining many of these stereotyped ideas is the assumed certainty that the principles of the Australian education system are unquestionably superior, rather than just different, than those existing in Asia. Generally this goes hand in hand with, if not a disregard for, a very superficial understanding of students’ previous learning experiences.

International non-English-speaking students who come to Australia are confronted not only with problems of functioning in a different language, but also with the need to adapt to a different educational culture. The importance of academic adjustment goes well beyond language and cultural factors (Ballard and Clanchy, 1991; 1997). Some of those adaptation problems are rooted in past learning experiences. International students bring with them learning experiences that maybe very different to what they experience in Australia. What worked back home may no longer be considered valid in Australia. This leaves students with the task of rebuilding a new understanding of what works and what does not. As Sullivan (2002, p.72) indicates, “familiar codes are broken and the attempt to decode the new ones is not a straightforward task”.

Different cultures value different skills and therefore different learning practices. According to Ryan (2000), differences affect modes of participation, teacher-student relationships, learning styles and approaches to learning, attitudes to knowledge and learning. While the Australian education system seems to emphasize personal development, in many countries the acquisition and accumulation of knowledge is given more importance. This can of course, be linked with the emphasis in Western English-speaking countries on the individual rather than on the group. In many Asian countries, the group is more important than the individual.

In many cases, students’ previous learning experiences, which were assets in their own countries suddenly become obstacles and are, in some cases, even defined as inferior practices. It is not the object of this paper to examine and compare the quality of students in Australian universities with those attending universities in other countries. However, there is no convincing evidence that Australian students are of a better caliber because of the learning practices they follow. On the contrary, according to Biggs (1997), students from East Asian educational systems outperform Western students on the same academic achievement tests.

DEFINING CRITICAL THINKING

Although critical thinking lies at the core of university education in Australia, its meaning is not always clear and an awareness of context, which may elude international students, is necessary to identify properly the possible meanings of the concept. The idea that the ability to think critically is required to do well at university is widespread, but the concept is vague and does not seem to have the same meaning for everybody, in every circumstance (Atkinson, 1997; Ennis, 1992). Because of its vagueness, the context in which the concept of critical thinking is used plays a key role in defining it. Unfortunately, contextual knowledge is precisely what many international students appear to lack, since it is something that normally develops over many years through immersion.

Existing definitions of critical thinking can broadly be divided into two categories.

The ability to develop a capacity to reason logically and cohesively. As such, this refers to the capacity to carry out a set of logical operations, to evaluate categories and forms of knowledge in order to determine their validity. Critical thinking is, in this case, also about the capacity to apply theory to practice.

The ability to question and challenge existing knowledge and the social order. This definition of critical thinking is inspired by Marxist tradition and based on the use of reason to examine historical and social realities to uncover hidden forms of domination and exploitation. Thus, for Brookfield (1987, p.15) critical thinking is about taking democracy seriously; it is about “identifying and challenging assumptions and exploring and imagining alternatives”. Benesh (1993) argues that critical thinking is a search for the social, historical, and political roots of conventional knowledge and an orientation to transform learning and society.

According to Wacquant (2001), it is necessary to bring these two categories of definitions together, so that the capacity to reason logically can be used to broaden critical thinking and allow for the freedom to think about the world beyond the restrictions imposed by dominant interpretations of the world.

It is this multiplicity of definitions of critical thinking that has led Atkinson (1997) to look at critical thinking as a socially constructed concept, a non-overt social practice rather than a well-defined and teachable set of pedagogical behaviors. For Atkinson (1997) critical thinking is essentially embedded in Western culture, since it can only be valued by cultures that see individuals as primary units, and who favor the idea of individual conflict and dissension rather than consensus and individual thought.

CRITICAL THINKING AS A LEARNING PRACTICE

Critical thinking has become a practice developed and promoted by Western English-speaking countries, particularly from the 1970s onwards. At the same time, courses providing the knowledge most valuable to practice critical thinking have been taken out of schools’ and most universities’ curricula. This is particularly true in courses such as history, philosophy, and logic that have been replaced by more practical courses.

By doing so, educational institutions have adopted learning curricula in line with the priorities of a system demanding practical education, producing students who do not need much further on the job education. This is in line with demands made by workplaces that nowadays seem to prefer young graduates who can do the job, to young graduates who can think critically. University courses such as classical languages, history, and grammar have often been replaced by more practical courses such as marketing, public relations, and tourism for example. It can easily be argued that by concentrating on the understanding of those immediately useful skills, which have a direct business application, the possibility for students genuinely to think critically, is greatly reduced, since no strong background is provided for them to do so.

Critical thinking is in most workplaces largely defined as the ability to carry out a set of logical operations. In many areas of professional life, critical thinking as questioning the status quo might then be seen as an obstacle. The sort of critical thinking that is valued consists of applying theory to practice, but certainly not critical thinking that might question dominant interpretations of the world. On the contrary, questioning dominant rules in Western society is not required to be successful professionally.

MEMORISATION VERSUS UNDERSTANDING

Educational institutions, particularly in countries like the United States and Australia, have often abandoned other background course material, which requires memorization. This is the case for instance, in courses teaching classical languages such as Greek and Latin, history, poetry, and grammar. This can be attributed to a negative attitude towards memorization, which is seen as opposed to understanding.

Memorization was for a long time recognized as a valid learning practice in English-speaking countries and still is in many Western countries as well as in most Asian countries. Today it is often denigrated as an inferior learning practice. Memorization as a learning practice puts the accent on the accumulation of knowledge, rather than on the capacity to criticize knowledge. According to Ballard (1987, p.114), memorization is popular in Asian countries because traditional knowledge is highly respected in those countries; while questioning and criticism is not part of the learning process. This has led to the stereotype that portrays Asian students as surface learners, who memorize, and have no deep approach to learning.

Perhaps memorization and understanding should not be separated. Many European educational institutions that still teach traditional subjects have a place for memorization as a learning practice. It is therefore not surprising that Marton, Dall’Alba and Kun (1996) found that memorization and understanding were not necessarily separated and that memorization is used by Asian students to develop understanding. Li and Chang (2001) also found that rote learning was used both to facilitate vocabulary acquisition and consolidate knowledge. According to Biggs (1996, p.63), the idea that Chinese students are rote learners is “a Western misperception arising [from] a mistaken interpretation of repetitive effort. Chinese students may be repetitive, but there is no evidence that they rote learn any more than their Western counterparts”.

AUSTRALIAN ACADEMICS NEED TO BECOME MORE INTERCULTURALLY COMPETENT

Organizing learning practices hierarchically, in terms of their value to learning is clearly a culturally determined process. Maybe it is time for Australian educators to consider how they could benefit from being exposed to other countries’ experiences. This would allow educators to evaluate their teaching practices from a different angle, while also gaining a better insight into what it means to be an international student in Australia.

In the face of the difficulties surrounding critical thinking as a concept, criticizing international students for not intuitively being capable of thinking critically is not acceptable. Critical thinking is often problematic for national students, who have the advantage of understanding language and context better. Whatever the type or level of critical thinking demanded, extensive background knowledge is required to access a common sense understanding of the practice of critical thinking. International students often do not possess this background. The problem this creates is compounded by the complexity of English argumentation skills. A good understanding of English is a prerequisite both to access background knowledge and to express argumentation itself. As Davies (2000) argues, for many students coming from a non-English-speaking background understanding, constructing and criticizing arguments represents a serious problem.

CONCLUSION

Demanding critical thinking of international students might therefore involve a more pragmatic approach. This would consist first of examining learning practices, including critical thinking, for what they are: socially constructed practices and not superior practices or a superior form of thinking that is only accessible to the best. Then there might also be a need to examine how learning concepts, such as critical thinking, apply to different disciplines or courses. Finally, students should be made aware of what is expected from them and how they can practically fulfill these expectations. This is not merely assuming that they will understand and eventually adapt.

Often students do adapt to learning requirements, often almost intuitively, but for many international students adapting intuitively presents too many hurdles. Therefore, there is a need to explain learning practices. What does critical thinking mean in the context of this unit? How does it differ? How is it done in essays and tutorials? Why do Australians value critical thinking so much? Burwood (1999) calls this, teaching explicitly. For him this is about “educators revealing their hand and making explicit to students the ground rules of disciplinary genres”.

Explicitness might also involve the need for Australian academics to develop a better understanding of international students as learners. Since explicitness about learning practice involves discussing learning practices, it may also lead educators to examine, compare and hopefully conciliate different teaching and learning practices.

International students are too often considered for their economic value, while the benefits of the different cultural competencies they can bring to a university are often ignored. Few have questioned what international students bring in terms of experience and knowledge and a lot of adjustment has been asked from international students. Little adjustment appears to have been done by teaching academics who seem to expect students to adapt. If universities are going to continue attracting international students and want to be successful at integrating and educating these students, they must also develop their programs by becoming internationally and culturally competent institutions. This cannot be done without the participation of academics themselves, who need to develop intercultural competencies.

REFERENCES

Atkinson, D. (1997) A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 71-94.
Ballard, B. (1987) Academic adjustment: the other side of the export dollar. Higher Education Research and Development, 6(2), 109-119.
Ballard, B. and Clanchy, J. (1991) Teaching Students from Overseas: A Brief Guide for Lecturers and Supervisors. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire.
Ballard, B. and Clanchy, J. (1997) Teaching International Students: A Brief Guide for Lecturers and Supervisors. Deakin: IDP Education Australia.
Benesh, S. (1993) Critical thinking: a learning process for democracy. TESOL Quarterly, 27(3), 545-547.
Brookfield , J. (1987) Developing Critical Thinkers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Biggs, J.B. (1996) Misperceptions of the Confucian-heritage learning culture. In D.A. Watkins and J.B.
Biggs (Eds.) The Chinese Learner: Cultural, Psychological and Contextual Influences, (pp.45-67) Hong Kong: ACER and CERC.
Biggs, J. (1997) Teaching across and within cultures: The issue of international students. In R. Murray
Harvey and H.C. Silins (eds.) Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Advancing International Perspectives, (pp.1-22). Proceedings of the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia Conference, Adelaide.
Burwood, S. (1999) Liberation philosophy. Teaching in Higher Education, 4 (4), 447-461.
Davies, M. (2000) Where to begin? Problems in teaching critical reasoning to NESB students. Proceedings of the National Language and Academic Skills Conference, La Trobe University. [Online] http://www.latrobe.edu.au/lasu/conference/davies.doc.
Ellwood, C. (2000) Dissolving and resolving cultural expectations: socio-cultural approaches to program development for international students. Proceedings of the National Language and Academic Skills Conference, La Trobe University. [Online] http://www.latrobe.edu.au/ lasu/conference/ellwood.doc.
Ennis, S. (1992) The Generalizability of Critical Thinking. New York: Teachers College Press.
Li, X. and Chang, S. (2001) A positive cultural perspective on rote learning in China. BALEAP Conference - Focus on Chinese Learners. Sheffield Hallam University.
Marton, F., Dall’Alba, G. and Kun, T. (1996) Memorising and understanding: the key to the paradox. In D.A. Watkins and J.B. Biggs (1996) The Chinese learner: Cultural Psychological and Contextual Influences, (pp.69-83). Hong Kong: CERC and ACER.
Ryan, J. (2000) A Guide to Teaching International Students. Oxford: Centre for Staff and Learning Development.
Sullivan, K. (2002) Credit and grade transfer within the European Union’s SOCRATES programme: Unity in diversity or head in the sand? Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 27(1), 65-74.
Wacquant, L. (2001) El pensamiento crítico como disolvente de la doxa. Revista de Filosofía, 26(1), 129-134. IEJ

Appendix

Glossary of Important Terms for Peace Education

Some of these words are adapted from Samovar et.al., 1997, but found in http://exchanges.state.gov/FORUM/JOURNAL/peace.htm

The Glossary has words and definitions that are most commonly used to discuss the concepts of peace and conflict.

accord	Agreement, mutual understanding. Common phrase: To be in accord. While we do not always agree on political issues, most of the time our views are in accord.
alternative solutions	More than one possible way to solve a conflict. In Conflict Resolution, the alternative solutions should point to meeting the needs of both participants and to establishing a long-term solution to the problem.
analysis of a conflict situation	The first step in the conflict resolution process in which all participants cooperate to define the conflict objectively.
argument	A discussion in which both participants have strong opposing views. A verbal disagreement. The argument between the parents and the school board was about continuing a popular but expensive after-school program for children.
assassinate:	To kill someone viciously as part of a plan, often for political or racial reasons.
behaviors	Behaviors are the way we act based on our learned beliefs and values.
beliefs	Beliefs are our conviction in the truth of something that we learned by living in our culture; they are the core of our actions and tell us how to behave in the world. Our beliefs are the basis for our values.
compromise	A situation in which both participants to a conflict agree to give up something in order to resolve the conflict. A compromise is often an intermediate stage in moving toward long-term resolution of a conflict.
conflict	1 : fight, battle, war <an armed conflict> 2 a : competitive or opposing action of incompatibles : antagonistic state or action (as of divergent ideas, interests, or persons) b : mental struggle resulting from incompatible or opposing needs, drives, wishes, or external or internal demands 3 : the opposition of persons or forces that gives rise to the dramatic action in a drama or fiction
conflict resolution	The process of creatively responding to a conflict in order to find ways to solve the problem.
cooling off period	A time for exposed emotion concerning the conflict to be dissipated. When a conflict becomes volatile there needs to be a cooling off period before resolution can begin.
cooperation	Working together with others to accomplish a common goal. With the cooperation of all the employees, the project was completed on time.
cultural diversity	Cultural diversity refers to the differences in cultural features (e.g., dress, food, and art forms; religious beliefs; and attitudes towards work, leisure time, marriage, birth, and death) between cultural groups.
culture	A culture is a group of people who share a background because of their common language, knowledge, beliefs, views, values, and behaviors. Culture often results in hidden patterns of communication, viewpoints, and expressions that people in that specific culture share. These hidden patterns have an effect on the way people behave, perceive the world, and interact with others.
cultural pattern	A cultural pattern is the collective term to describe a cluster of interrelated cultural orientations. Cultural patterns are made up of interrelated cultural behaviors which are influenced by values that are shared by a cultural group.
de-escalation of conflict	De-escalation of conflict involves a reduction of strong emotion and working to give an objective description of the problem. De-escalation of a conflict leads to possible resolution of the conflict.
disagreement	An opposition of views. The father and daughter were in disagreement about the time she had to be home after the party.
diversity	Diversity is the state of being different or of unlikeness (dictionary definition). In the context of society, diversity is when various different factors interact to define the society of a particular culture. For example, religions, music, art, dance, foods, educational levels, and economic wealth may be similar for the majority of the people in a homogeneous culture. In a heterogeneous culture, compiled of many ethnic groups, there will be a diversity of cultural features.
dogmatism	The characteristic of an individual to believe that his/her opinion is correct and to hold to this belief without substantiation; A dogmatic person who presents opinions as truths.
dominant culture	A dominant culture or cultural pattern is the one that represents the majority or the largest number of people.
empathic communication skills	The ability to express a shared understanding with another person which connotes a mutual respect for the person’s beliefs and values - Types of communicative empathetic responses to another person’s feelings or expressed emotions are accepting, validating, extending, and prescribing.
empathy	The understanding of and intellectual identification with the attitudes, feelings, or thoughts of others. When I lost my checkbook during my vacation, the hotel clerk showed great empathy in helping me get other funds; the same thing had happened to him on his vacation, so he understood my situation.
empathy inhibitors	Preconceived ideas, stereotyped notions, and personal biases and prejudices are factors that make it difficult to achieve a shared understanding of another person’s feelings or emotions. For example, if you hold the stereotype of a particular ethnic group as "lazy", it will be difficult to empathize with a group of homeless people from that ethnic group.
escalation of conflict	A conflict situation gets worse and might lead to violence.
fanatic	A person who has unreasonably strong beliefs in or enthusiasm for something. A fanatic often does things that are excessive and may be contrary to the mores and laws of society.
fast	A fast is a self-imposed period of not eating. People fast for medical or religious reasons, or to show strong support for an issue or a principle.
frustration	A feeling of anger or disappointment at not being able to achieve a goal or obtain something that you want. After waiting five minutes for the light to change at the intersection, the drivers began honking their horns in frustration.
harmony	To have agreement or accord in a relationship; to work together in friendship and cooperation. The class worked together in harmony to produce a beautiful collage. Commonly used phrase: Harmonious relations. The committee worked together smoothly and effectively because of their harmonious relations; everyone made an effort to cooperate and agree.
homogeneous society	A homogeneous society is one in which the majority of the members share the same cultural beliefs, attitudes, and values, and there is little difference in the economic wealth or social distance of the members of the society.
heterogeneous society	A heterogeneous society is one in which members of the society come from diverse cultural groups. Usually there are differences of economic wealth, educational levels, and social status between the groups who live in the society.
hostility	A feeling or attitude of intense opposition to a person, group, or an action. After the strike, the hostility the workers felt toward management made the work place tense and unfriendly.
incompatible	Not able to exist together or to come to agreement about something. The two boys could not continue to be roommates because their sleep schedules were incompatible; John went to bed at 10 p.m. and got up early, while Sam went to bed at 2 a.m. and wanted to sleep until noon. Common phrase: Incompatible differences. The strike was called because of incompatible differences regarding salaries between the workers and the company.
ideation of a conflict situation	The second step in the conflict resolution process, in which everyone thinks creatively to develop alternative solutions to the conflict.
insensitive	Responding to another person by disregards that person’s feelings or needs
intolerance	Intolerance is the lack of tolerance, or acceptance, of differences in others. Intolerance to differences can lead to disagreements and conflicts between people, groups, and nations.
knowledge	Knowledge is the facts, skills, and understanding that people of a shared culture have gained through learning and experience.
mediator	A person who helps with the de-escalation and resolution of a conflict.
multicultural societies	Multicultural societies are those in which many cultural groups live together within the same nation.
objective	To be objective about a problem is to be accurate in the description of the problem and fair and unbiased in stating the participants’ needs.
objectivity	A way of looking at a situation or understanding an issue which emphasizes the actual behaviors, actions, and events: when one is objective about something, little personal bias or prejudice influences the observation.
nonviolent resistance	To protest or go against some issue without using violence. An example of nonviolent resistance is a "march", in which people walk together for a long distance to support a cause but do not physically abuse anyone or take any action for the cause.
perception	A perception of a conflict reflects one person’s understanding of the situation. Participants’ perceptions of a conflict situation may be strongly influenced by their emotional involvement as well as attachment to their own needs, desires, wants, and goals. A goal of Conflict Resolution is to help the participants to objectively and accurately describe the conflict situation in terms of both participants’ needs.
racial discrimination	The practice of denying equal rights to people because of their race.
racial separation:	The practice of physically separating people of different races in regard to carrying out activities in their daily lives, like housing, schooling, shopping, transportation, etc.)
respect	To show regard and consideration for something or someone. The new boss is firm but fair, and he has earned the respect of all of his employees. Common phrase: Respect for differences. The cafeteria serves many ethnic foods in respect for the differences in eating preferences of our international students.
security	Freedom from danger or risk; safety. One of the reasons for living in a small town is the security that small-town living provides; crime rates, for example, are much lower in a small town that in a large city.
stereotype	A stereotype is the belief or opinion held by one group that the majority of a different group can be classified by the actions, appearance, or attitudes of a few members of that group.
subjective	Our understanding of an issue or situation is subjective when our personal biases and past experiences influence our understanding.
sympathy	The emotional response of agreement of feelings between people; the response of sharing feelings with another, especially in times of sorrow or trouble.
threat	A perceived danger or risk to your security or well being. The arrival of soldiers and tanks at the rally signaled the threat of violence to the protesters.
tolerance	A fair and objective attitude toward those whose ideas, opinions, race, religion, or nationality may differ from your own. The absence of bigotry. When the immigrants moved into the town, the community accepted them with goodwill and tolerance. Common phrase: Religious or racial tolerance. Racial tolerance among nations is a prerequisite for peace.
understanding	1. The mental process of comprehension. He understands the theory of fluctuating prices, so his business includes flexible pricing. 2. The demonstration of empathy, compassion, sensitivity regarding the actions or feelings of others. When I missed the exam because I was ill, my teacher let me take it later; I really appreciated her kindness and understanding.
values	Values are a set of beliefs based upon a code of ethics in a society. They tell us what is right and wrong, good and bad; they tell us how to live our lives.
value dimension	A value dimension is a set of interrelated values that exist along a continuum of relative importance. We use this term to describe the values that influence cultural behaviors in all cultures.
views	Views are the perceptions, judgments, or opinions on certain issues that individuals learn from their cultures.
win-win resolution	A solution to a conflict that allows all participants to be satisfied that their needs have been met.

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Taking it Further

Taking It Further (Journal Writing, Extra Assignments, Special Explorations, Creative Endeavors):

Asian Philosophy and Critical Thinking: Divergence or Convergence?

Soraj Hongladarom
Department of Philosophy
Chulalongkorn University

http://homepage.mac.com/soraj/web/APPEND.html

Introduction

It is widely recognized nowadays that critical thinking has become a necessary ingredient in all levels of education. Educators and educational policy makers agree that one of the desirable goals of education is that students are able to think critically. In Thailand, many have felt the need to inculcate critical thinking more seriously in educational curricula. Thais have gone so far as to include a clause in the newly promulgated Constitution that a bill on education be passed by Parliament. At the moment the act is being considered by various factors and agencies. The core of the proposed act is the idea that the students be able to think critically and independently. Although there are widespread disagreements on what critical thinking actually is,[1] there is an agreement that it has become very important in the world deluged by huge amount of information (Hongladarom 1998b).

This acknowledgement of the value of critical thinking has also reached the countries of Asia, whose cultural traditions are very different from that of the West. Some Western educators who teach at schools or universities in a number of Asian countries have voiced their difficulties and problems they encounter while trying to teach critical thinking and other related skills to Asian students. Bruce Davidson (1995) argues that a set of Japanese cultural factors act as a kind of barrier against teaching critical thinking to students. Atkinson (1997) goes so far as to argue that critical thinking is culturally specific, and is a part of the social practices of the West having no place within Asian cultures, which do not adopt such practices. What these educators have in common is the feeling that some elements in Asian cultures do prevent the full realization of critical thinking skills in the students. Most of these elements perceived by Western educators in Asia are quite well known--the beliefs that teachers are superior and always right, that knowledge is not to be made here and now, but exists eternally, so to speak, to be handed down by teachers, that social harmony is to be preferred rather than asking probing questions--to mention just a few.

Is critical thinking really culture specific? Can the traditional belief systems of Asia respond to the challenge of the modern world while still retaining their distinctive identities? Are Asian philosophy and critical thinking necessary divergent or possibly convergent? These are very significant question not just for Asian cultures, but for understanding how cultures of the world respond to globalization. In addition the question also has a bearing on the problematic relation between critical thinking and the cultural milieux in which it happens to be embedded.

In this paper, I attempt to argue that critical thinking is not necessarily incompatible with Asian traditional belief systems. In fact I will show that both India and China do have their own indigenous traditions of logical and argumentative thinking. Since the logical traditions within both Indian and Chinese cultures were perceived to be not conducive to their respective ideals, they were eventually supplanted by the more dominant traditions which did not emphasize criticism or argumentation as much as social harmony or intuitive insights. I will further try to show that, since the logical traditions are already there in the major Asian cultural traditions, they can and should be reexamined, reinterpreted and adapted to the contemporary situation. This would be an answer to the Western educators who have found no such tradition in the East.

Logical Tradition in India and China

It is widely known that India had a highly advanced logical tradition, spanning more than two thousand years. The successes of Indian mathematicians and computer programmers are perhaps due to the fact that logic and critical thinking have been integral to the Indian way of thinking since time immemorial. Such an integration can also be witnessed in the fondness of Indians for talking and debating. Tscherbatsky (1962: 31-34) tells us that in the times of Dignaga and Dharmakirti, two of the greatest Buddhist logicians, the fate of entire monasteries depended on public debates. According to Tscherbatsky, Dignaga won his fame and royal support through his defeat of the brahmin Sudurjaya at Nalanda Monastery (31-34).

In another vein, Matilal (1990: 1-8) argues that the Indian logical tradition is entirely home grown, since there is no evidence of India's being influenced by Aristotelian ideas. Matilal also shows that many topics which are of interest by contemporary logicians and philosophers today were discussed and researched into with sophistication by Indian scholars. Such topics include theory of inference, empty names, reference and existence, perception, knowledge of the external world, substance, causality, and many others (Matilal 1990). Moreover, Tscherbatsky's (1962) work, dealing mainly with the works of Dignaga and Dharmakirti iillustrates that India is one of the great logical and philosophical civilizations of the world.

There are a number of topics which both traditions discovered independently of each other. For example, Matilal notes that the counterpart of the Aristotelian syllogism is the "five-membered argument" found in such texts as Caraka and Nyayasutra. Instead of the three propositions found in Aristotelian syllogism, the five-membered argument consists of five propositions, the first of which is the conclusion, and the last repeating what is already stated in the first. The remaining three propositions in between are the premises. Here is one example of the five-membered argument cited by Matilal (1990: 5):

1. There is fire on this mountain.
2. For, there is smoke there.
3. Smoke goes with fire always (or, in all cases, or in all places): witness, kitchen.
4. This is also a case of smoke.
5. Therefore, there is fire there (on the mountain).

Logicians will immediately be able to reconstruct this argument in the familiar Aristotelian form as follows:

The place on the mountain is a place where there is smoke.
A place where there is smoke is a place where there is fire.
Therefore, the place on the mountain is a place where there is fire.

Matilal, however, notes that there is at least a dissimilarity between the Indian and the Aristotelian argument forms presented here. For instance, he says that the conclusion of the Indian argument form is in the form of `singular proposition,' (i.e., modified by demonstratives like `this' or `that') whereas that of the Aristotelian syllogism is either universal or particular (i.e., modified by quantifiers like `all' or `some'). But the dissimilarity here could be amended, as indexicals (terms like `this' or `that' which relies on the context of utterance for their full meaning) could be dispensed with by supplying the required information on the context in which they are uttered. Thus it could be safely stated that the Indian logical tradition fully comprehended the essence, so to speak, of logic, which is the concept of validity and the basic valid argument form.

Another of the world's great civilizations, China, also had its own indigenous and independent logical tradition. Two of China's logical school of thought are the Mohists and the Logicians. The former was founded by Mo Ti, who lived between 479 to 381 B.C., during the Warring States period of Chinese history (Ronan 1978: 114). Among the typical Chinese scholars the Mohists are better known for their doctrine of universal love and the condemnation of offensive war rather than their interests and achievements in the physical sciences. In the latter Needham reports that the Mohists went very far toward realizing the thought system which was prerequisite for modern science. Most significantly, the Mohists appeared to be in grasp of the concepts of deduction and induction. They viewed the former as a way of thinking which follows a `mental model,' which guarantees that whoever follows it will never fail to be right in their thinking. Here is an example of reasoning based on following such mental model:

Model-thinking consists in following the methods [of Nature].
What is followed in "model-thinking" are the methods.
Therefore if the methods are truly followed by the "model-thinking" [literally: hit in the middle], the reasoning will be correct.

But if the methods are not truly followed by the "model-thinking," the reasoning will be wrong (Ronan 1978: 119).

On the other hand, the Mohists also recognized the value of `extension' which is a kind of reasoning from the known examples and `extend' it to unknown cases similar to them:

Extension is considering that that which one has not yet received [i.e. a new phenomenon] is identical [fromthe point of view of classification] with those which one has already received, and admitting it (Ronan 1978: 119).

It is clear then that the former is an instance of deductive thinking, while the latter represents the basic idea of inductive thinking.

The two most well known representatives of the Logicians are Hui Shih and Kungsun Lung. The former is known for his paradoxes resembling that of Zeno, and his writings were designed to shock and to illustrate deep logical point. For example, Hui Shih's writing that "The Heavens are as low as the Earth; mountains are on the same level as marshes" (Ronan 1978: 122) could be regarded as a way of illustrating the fact that, viewed from the cosmic perspective, the sentence written by Hui Shih here is actually true. Other pieces of his writings concern what and how we perceive:

Fire is not hot.
Eyes do not see (Ronan 1978: 122).

These are designed to lead one to think that what is hot in fire may well not be in the fire at all, but is located within our tactile perception of it. And the factor that actually does the seeing is not the eyes themselves, but the consciousness or whatever that gives rise to the perception.

Similarly, Kungsun Lung had a system of logical and paradoxical thinking that could well serve as the foundation of modern science, according to Needham. The following excerpts show that Kungsun Lung grasped such concepts as the universality and unlocalizability of number and universals and their contrasts with particulars which are their instances. Most interestingly, Kungsun Lung's discussion of changes in Nature could well point to modern scientific way of thought:

Q Is it permissible to say that a change is not a change?
A It is.
Q Can "right" associating itself [with something] be called change?
A It can.
Q What is it that changes?
A It is "right."
...
Q If "right" has changed, how can you still call it "right"? And if it has not changed, how can you speak of a change?
A "Two" would have no right if there were no left. Two contains `left-and-right.' A ram added to an ox is not a horse. An ox added to a ram is not a fowl (Ronan 1978: 121-122).

Here one finds a discussion of the unchangeability of universals and their distinction from particulars. One thing, A, located to the right of another thing, B, would form two things, A-and-B. This thing, A-and-B would undergo a change if A happens to move to the left of B. What is changed here is the relation between A and B. However, the Right itself is changeless, even though the particulars forming right or left relation to each other do. Thus, a ram added to an ox would still be two animals, and won't become either a horse or a fowl. The changelessness of universals is a different matter altogether from the mutability of particular things. Kungsun Lung's writing here is reminiscent of Western medieval treatises on logic and the problem of universals, such as those of Abelard or Duns Scotus.

No matter how similar or different these Asian writings on logic and philosophy are from those of Europe, it is certain that both India and China do indeed have rigorous and profound systems of logic and critical thinking, systems which could well form a launching pad for advanced scientific research and innovation that actually took place in the West. Thus Atkinson's argument that critical thinking is culturally specific to the West is clearly not borne out by historical facts and thus is mistaken. However, when we look at the situations in the Asian countries today, especially in Thailand whose cultural tradition is mostly influenced by Buddhism, which originated within the Indian philosophical and religious milieu, Atkinson seems to be right in that there is a felt need for teaching Thai students to be able to think critically. McGuire (1998) argues that there is a need to teach critical thinking and that critical thinking can be taught to Asian students because it does not necessarily go against the grain of local cultures and contains universal elements which any local culture can find acceptable. If critical thinking is already there in these cultural traditions, then why are there concerns for introducing it to them? Something must have happened to these cultural traditions so that there feels a need to bring in the skills and practices of critical thinking from outside. Or is it really the need to reintroduce and to reacquaint these traditions with something which is clearly their own, but is somehow lost?

Needham 's Grand Question and Fuller's Interpretation

An adequate investigation into what actually caused the decline of the logical traditions in India or China would comprise one thick book. However, I believe that a glimpse toward an answer could be found if we compare the dominant positions in the two civilizations with the logical traditions. In India, the logical schools, Nyaya, Mimamsa, together with the Buddhist logic and dialectic schools of Dignaga, Dharmakirti and Nagarjuna never gained the ascendancy when compared to the other traditions such as the Vedanta. This may be due to the fact that the teachings and the disputations of the logical schools were limited to the monks or brahmins who practiced them. And when the logical tradition had to compete with other traditions which could garner more popular appeal, it is quite conceivable that the remote logical schools would lose support. Perhaps in India the tradition of logical and critical thinking was limited to the élite educated class in such a way that the general population knew nothing of it, and this could be one explanation, though very sketchy and tentative, as to why modern scientific thinking did not develop in India. For science to develop, there must be a tendency toward a comprehension of all of Nature through a few general laws which could be learned and understood by anyone. The method of learning such laws must be such that no one is excluded from studying except through his own intellectual capabilities.

In China, Needham suggests that the reasons for modern science's lack of development are due to historical, economic, social and cultural factors (Needham 1969: 190-217). Needham rightly dismisses the interpretation of Europe's eventual mastery of modern scientific techniques in geographical or racial determinism. The scientific and mathematical achievements in both India and China during the ancient and medieval periods is so great that it is hardly conceivable at all to think of Europe's success in terms of her `destiny' or `superior level of advancement' as propagated by the Hegelian tradition. On the other hand, Needham seems to believe that it is more a matter of luck that Europe could eventually mastered the arts of modern science and became dominant. Needham writes:

The further I penetrate into the detailed history of the achievements of Chinese science and technology before the time when, like all other ethnic cultural rivers, they flowed into the river of modern science, the more convinced I become that the cause for the break-through occurring only in Europe was connected with the special social, intellectual and economic conditions prevailing there at the Renaissance, and can never be explained by any deficiencies either of the Chinese mind or of the Chinese intellectual and philosophical tradition. In many ways this was much more congruent with modern science than was the world-outlook of Christendom (Needham 1969: 191).

The "special social, intellectual and economic conditions" that explain Europe's success are nowhere necessarily attached to the historical development of Europe. They seem only to be those that Europeans adopted, consciously or not, in response to their historical, social, and mercantile needs. Those needs apparently were not in the minds of Indians or Chinese, whose priorities for their civilization as a whole seemed to be something else. Thus, instead of looking for a unifying theory capable of explaining and predicting natural phenomenon so that men could harness the power of Nature to their own material needs as well as feel a sense of mastery when Nature is thus comprehended, Indians and Chinese chose to put the ideals of their civilizations in another way.

The summum bonum of the Indian philosophical tradition, attainment of Moksha or Liberation, is quite contrary to the ideals and presuppositions of modern scientific thinking. Instead of looking for the way to liberate oneself from the endless cycle of rebirths through strenuous regimens of self discipline, Europeans sought to advance their own self interests which are more inclined to the mundane. In China, the rapid transformation from feudalism to state bureaucratism, coupled with the pervasiveness of the Confucian ethos, while hugely successful in preserving China's cultural identity amidst the great variety of people and localities, nonetheless made it the case that material innovations and proto-scientific and logical theories would be given scant attention. Writings on such matters are relegated to the `Miscellaneous' category by the mandarin scholars who put the highest priority to moralistic, ethical, or historical writings (Ronan 1978: 19)

This interpretation, which is focused on the contingent character of the rise of modern science in Europe, is regarded by Steve Fuller as the "underdeterminist" one. According to Fuller, the reason why China did not develop modern science was that it was not specifically promoted (Fuller 1997: 80-88). He contrasts this with the "overdeterminist" mode--the kind of explanation that seeks to explain the lack of progress of modern science through the idea that it was specifically prevented from occurring. Thus, according to the former outlook, the reason science did not develop in China was because historical, social, economic conditions were such that they were simply incompatible with its rise. This could be due to the Chinese not putting a high priority on things scientific. On the other hand, the overdeterminist would assume that science is part of a culture's destiny which would materialize anyway if the circumstances were favorable. However, in the case of China these circumstances were not favorable, blocking science's potential development. To view the history and development of science in the latter mode would mean that science is a necessary part of a culture's path of development, which is the same for all cultures. A culture in which science successfully develops is thus viewed as more "advanced" than another where the development of science is somehow stinted. On the other hand, the underdeterminist would argue that such a picture of each cultural entity racing along the same path smells too much of teleology and "God's design" to be tenable. Instead of so viewing, each culture should be regarded as having its own path not necessarily shared with others.

Since critical thinking and modern scientific thinking are closely related, discussions of the historical rise of science in various cultures are directly related to our investigation of whether critical thinking is compatible with the major Asian cultural traditions. Discussions on the rise of modern science seems to enable us to see, analogously, how the tradition of critical thinking arose and how they were promoted or discourgated. If the underdeterminist mode of interpretation is accepted, then the lack of critical thinking tradition in Asia could be explained by the fact that somehow members of these traditions decided not to go put critical thinking high on their list of priorities. This despite the fact that critical thinking skills could be found deep within the traditions themselves.

Asian Philosophy and Critical Thinking: Divergence or Convergence?

Hence, the values typically associated with Asian culture such as social harmony and deference to the elders and teachers are thus seen as consequences of the cultures deciding to put a certain set of priorities above others. Social harmony was instrumental in bringing about the cultural cohesiveness which is the most distinctive characteristic of Chinese culture. It is valued above most other types of values because it goes hand in hand with social stability, whose alternative is perceived as chaos and general disruption of social structure. The prioritization of social harmony can also be seen in other Asian cultures such as the Thai one, and results in Thais trying as far as they possibly can to avoid open conflicts and disagreements. In the case of China, since all the elements which could bring about the rise of modern science were in place, it is quite clear that the Chinese culture actually chose not to go along the path taken by the Europeans. The decision made by a culture to adopt a particular system of beliefs and practices certainly did not happen suddenly, as if at one particular moment of history, members of a culture had a meeting and declared their cultures' adoption of this or that set. The decision occurred gradually throughout the historical development of a culture, and can be seen in China adopting Confucianism rather than the more materialistic and scientifically inclined Taoism and Mohism, and in India adopting the more mystical doctrine emphasizing the role of meditation and private insights rather than publicly demonstrable methods of knowing. Reasons for such decision are enormously complicated, but it is hardly conceivable that China was somehow destined to lag behind Europe in the science race due to factors they could not control.

This may be taken to show that critical thinking and Asian thought are divergent. If the Asian cultures chose not to go along the path where critical thinking is one milestone, then both do not seem to go with each other, and Atkinson may be vindicated when he argues that critical thinking is a part of Western culture only. If the Asian cultures prioritize sets of values which are incompatible with critical thinking, and if they freely chose those sets over the set adopted by Europeans for whatever reasons, then it appears that critical thinking would belong to European culture only, and to adopt it to Asian cultures would be tantamount to importing foreign ideas and practices to alien lands. Thus, Atkinson's argument seems prima facie to fit well with the underdeterminist position.

This line of reasoning, however, would be valid only if what a culture decided as its own set of priorities at one time will always remain so for all other times. If the Thai culture, for example, once decided that social harmony should take precedence over critical argumentation and open debates, then critical thinking practices would be forever alien to it if the members of the culture always agree that decisions in the past are not to be amended no matter what. But that is surely a very unreasonable position to take. Cultures, like humans, often make decisions which later are amended or revoked, with new decisions made, when things are not the same any longer. Decisions to prioritize one set of values over another are not etched in stone, but even so the stone can be broken down or else taken to a museum or a pedestal where it loses its real meaning. Decisions at one time reflect the circumstances prevailing at that time, and to abide by past decisions with no prospect of adapting or making new decisions in response to changing circumstances would make the culture frozen and unable to participate. Opting not to amend their past decisions, a culture would in effect be telling the world that it is constructing a wall around itself, giving nothing to the world and receiving nothing. However, sociological and economic conditions of the contemporary world do not permit such a scenario from happening. Cultures need to change themselves, not merely to survive, but to prosper and to permit better lives for their members.

Consequently, Asian cultures and critical thinking are divergent only if the former opt not to amend their decisions. But since we are talking only about decisions, then it is not difficult at all to conceive that cultures would make new decisions in response to changing times. Doing so would make the two more convergent. Hence, the divergence and convergence, after all, depend on what decisions a culture makes. There is nothing necessarily attached to a culture's path along history that makes it essentially divergent or convergent from the modern critical thinking tradition, or from any tradition for that matter. Since the philosophy of a culture is but an abstract and theoretical expression and justification of the culture's decision to choose one set of priorities over another, Asian philosophy and critical thinking are neither necessarily divergent nor necessarily convergent.

Conclusion

Any attempt to introduce, or we should say, to bring back critical thinking practices to the cultures of Asia would, therefore, begin within the cultures themselves. This is in line with the underdeterminist idea that each culture has its own peculiar development path which is not necessarily shared with others. The missionary zeal of propagating the "truth" of one culture to another is a misplaced one which, apart from sounding imperialistic and patronizing, is something the contemporary sensibility cannot accept. Thus the first step in such an attempt must consist of a series of arguments designed to show to most members of the culture where critical thinking is to be introduced that critical thinking is really good. But to do that would at least require one full substantial paper, something which is definitely out of scope of this present paper. Besides, to argue that critical thinking is actually a good thing to have is difficult, because it may run counter to the deeply entrenched belief that critical thinking is just a label for the confrontational and disputatious mode of life which the culture finds unpalatable.

Though the task is difficult, I believe that it is unavoidable. As an insider of my own cultural tradition, I am trying to convince the members of my culture of the value of critical thinking and its important role in educating the Thai citizens for the increasingly globalized world of today and tomorrow. An important part of my argument for integrating critical thinking and its corollary belief systems to the Thai culture is the idea that Thais should view the elements of their culture which could present the most serious obstacles to critical thinking as "benign fiction." That is, elements such as reverence of the elders and the belief in social hierarchy and so on should be viewed in the same way as a modern person views his or her own traditional customs and ceremonies. One is in one sense a part of the culture where the ceremonies happen, but in another sense one is detached from it since one knows that they only serve a certain function in one's culture and since one knows about other cultures to be able to detach oneself from one's own customs and ceremonies.

Such an argument would naturally require a lot more space and time than is available here. What I hope to have accomplished in this paper, however, is much more modest. It is, as we have seen, an argument that Asian philosophy and Asian thought in general do not necessarily conflict with critical thinking and its presuppositions. Furthermore, it is the contingent making of decisions throughout the history of each culture itself, which, I believe, is flexible and adaptive enough to effect substantial changes for the future.[2]

References

Atkinson, D. 1997. A Critical Approach to Critical Thinking. TESOL Quarterly 31, 71-94.
Blair, J. Anthony and Ralph H. Johnson. 1991. Misconceptions of Informal Logic: A Reply to McPeck. Teaching Philosophy 14.1, 35-52.
Davidson, Bruce. 1995. Critical Thinking Education Faces the Challenge of Japan. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines, 14.3, 31 pars., http://www.shss.montclair.edu/inquiry/spr95/davidson.html.
Fuller, Steve. 1997. Science. Birmingham: Open UP.
Hatcher, Donald. 1995a. Critical Thinking and Epistemic Obligations. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines 14.3, 38 pars., http://www.shss.montclair.edu/inquiry/spr95/hatcher2.html.
Hatcher, Donald. 1995b. Should Anti-Realists Teach Critical Thinking?. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines 14.4, 21 pars., http://www.shss.montclair.edu/inquiry/summ95/hatcher.html.
Hongladarom, Soraj. 1998a. Critical Thinking and the Realism/Anti-Realism Debate, http://pioneer.chula.ac.th/~hsoraj/web/CT.html.
Hongladarom, Soraj. 1998b. Humanistic Education in Today's and Tomorrow's World. Manusya: Journal of Humanities, 1 (forthcoming).
Hostetler, Karl. 1991. Community and Neutrality in Critical Thought: A Nonobjectivist View on the Conduct and Teaching of Critical Thinking. Educational Theory, 41.1, 1-12.
Matilal, Bimal Krishna. 1990. Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
McGuire, John. 1998. Is Critical Thinking Cultural Thinking?. Unpublished ms.
McPeck, John E. 1991. What is Learned in Informal Logic?, Teaching Philosophy, 14.1, 25-34.
Needham, Joseph. 1969. The Grand Titration: Science and Society in East and West. London: Allen & Unwin.
Paul, Richard. 1993. Critical Thinking: What Every Person Needs to Survive in a Rapidly Changing World. Santa Rosa, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Ronan, Colin A. 1978. The Shorter Science and Civilization in China: An Abridgement of Needham's Original Text. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Sutton, Robert. 1995. Realism and Other Philosophical Mantras. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines, 14.4, 18 pars., http://www.shss.montclair.edu/inquiry/summ95/sutton.html.
Tscherbatsky, F. Th. 1962. Buddhist Logic. New York: Dover.

Notes

[1]The literature on the nature and definitions of critical thinking are enormous. Probably the most intense debate among critical thinking experts centers around the question whether critical thinking can be a separate, autonomous academic discipline dealing with the general form of thinking to be applied by students in all of their subsequent academic endeavors, or whether it is not autonomous at all, but should always be part of substantial academic disciplines. The chief representative of the latter view, McPeck (1991), is often roundly attacked in the literature, as can be witnessed by attack by Blair and Johnson (1991) on McPeck's view. However, I believe that this line of debate gives us little in terms of how we are to understand we should take critical thinking to be, for critical thinking would be nothing if not applied to real cases, and the study of it would not be totally effective if the skills and theories peculiar to it were not abstracted and studied on their own. The more fruitful line of debate focuses on the nature of critical thinking, or the meaning of `critical thinking' itself. Richard Paul (1993) provides a definition that no one can gainsay: Critical thinking is the kind of thinking one thinks of one's thinking in order to make one's thinking better. Hatcher (1995a; 1995b) calls for the kind of critical thinking that is based on the so-called `epistemological realist' position. This is contrasted by Sutton (1995) and Hostetler (1991), who argue that critical thinking is more amenable to the anti-realist position. I have argued elsewhere that both positions mistake the actual nature of the practice of teaching critical thinking, which presupposes neither realism nor anti-realism (Hongladarom 1998a).

[2]Research for this paper was partially supported by a grant from the Silver Jubilee Fund, Chulalongkorn University. I would like to thank Prof. Somsak Panyakaew and Dr. Sutthilak Pathumraj for their support.

Post-Conflict Education

Critical Dialogue for Societal Restoration

Joanna Durham, May, 2004
http://gseweb.harvard.edu/~t656_web/peace/Articles_Spring_2004/Durham_Joanna_post-conflict_critical_pedagogy.htm

Many nations experiencing long-standing conflict inundate their citizens with negative propaganda and violent war stories. In these narratives of us and them one’s own nation is the victim of oppression by the evil other, the opposition in the conflict. How are these stereotypes and negative ideologies dealt with when peace is finally achieved? How can longstanding feuds between ethnic groups, political parties, or religious factions be deconstructed in a way that is both critical and positive?

In areas of longstanding conflict, many inhabitants have grown into adulthood during the conflict and have been socially conditioned to hate the defined enemy. Most are ill-equipped to live peacefully with the former opposition. Critical pedagogy is one of the ways citizens’ personal beliefs and stereotypes can be deconstructed. This deconstruction can then become a catalyst for a reparative dialogue between opposing groups leading to permanent social change.

What is Critical Pedagogy?

Critical pedagogy is a philosophy of education developed by the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire. Freire questioned the idea that students are recipients of knowledge. He believed that students must actively question and participate in the construction of their own reality. This requires a close examination of their political and social ideologies and assumptions. Only through recognition of how societal forces can impact personal values and assumptions can students begin to be truly liberated and free of socially conditioned reactions, a process Freire referred to as liberation and humanization.

Henry Giroux explained how critical pedagogy is a political process. "Critical pedagogy argues that school practices need to be informed by a public philosophy that addresses how to construct ideological and institutional conditions in which the lived experience of empowerment for the vast majority of students becomes the defining feature of schooling." He adds that critical pedagogy helps create new forms of knowledge based upon the examination of power relationships and the examination of narratives. This leads to a rejection of “the distinction between high and popular culture so as to make curriculum knowledge responsive to the everyday knowledge that constitutes people lived histories differently.” [1]

Critical pedagogy could be an effective tool for dialogue amongst or between the formerly oppressed and the oppressors. Paulo Freire recognized a dangerous pattern in which the previously oppressed have a tendency to take on the characteristics of their oppressors. [2] His examination of oppression cautions against this inclination and encourages a careful struggle toward liberation that involves societal transformation rather than simply changing roles with their prior oppressors. Only through education can people become humanized and empowered to create social change. People must analyze their situations and determine their own solutions to problems within the society, “Liberation is thus a childbirth, and a painful one.” [3] Critical dialogue, empowerment, and trust of learners to deconstruct and/or reconstruct their own realities and society are essential to critical pedagogy. This process is crucial to supporting and maintaining peaceful relations among diverse groups as described in the following section.

Rationale for Critical Pedagogy Post-Conflict

Most men will not usually kill unless it is under the banner of some kind of fight against evil…I think it is time for social scientists to catch up with Hitler as a psychologist, and to realize that men will do anything for heroic belonging to a victorious cause if they are persuaded about the legitimacy of that cause. 4

In The Psychology of War, LeShan described the tendency for human beings to adopt a mythical view of reality during wartime. 5 War tends to polarize nations. Citizens begin to interpret the conflict as a battle of good versus evil. LeShan explains, “The same qualities are regarded as profoundly different when possessed by the good Us as opposed to the evil Them.”

During times of war governments need the support of citizens. They will use the media to display images of victimization and tell stories of heroic battles and losses. Citizens wanting to believe in something larger than their own existence, or to be empowered, are convinced of the ultimate calling of their nation to war. LeShan adds, “In order for war to retain its mythic aspects, and thus increase the intensity of meaning in our lives and bond us more completely as group members, enough of the real facts of how war is waged must be concealed.” 6

Erik Erikson’s idea of perception realignment relates to this inclination to mythic wars and the society’s inclination to accept them. According to LeShan, “Erikson believes that both the potential and the tendency to shift from sensory reality to mythic reality are very strong in human beings, and are only held back by the expenditure of large amounts of psychological energy—literally, by constant effort.” 7 These tendencies parallel Freire’s ideas of liberation and humanization, described in the previous section. As such, a curriculum based on Freire’s concept of critical pedagogy can promote the skills necessary to recognize and fight this social conditioning.

What happens to the carefully cultivated war culture when the war is over?

The citizenry of a nation must be provided an opportunity to process their ideological indoctrination and examine their own experiences and the narratives of the other parties involved. A Paraguayan colleague remembered the taboo of discussing a military dictatorship after the regime was overthrown when she was a child. Her father was forced to leave the country when an oppositional party came into power. When she was young, the dictator was overthrown and her family returned to Paraguay. Though she attended school with the dictator’s granddaughter and the child of a former Supreme Court justice responsible for much of the abuse during that time, the dictatorship and events surrounding it were never discussed.

She explained, “A teacher wanted to bring in a torture victim as a learning experience for our class...the children from the former dictatorship made a big deal about it.” She added that the event was compromised so that only those who wanted to attend did. She knew her two classmates well and understood their pain. One of the dictator’s grandchildren felt the need to offer some consolation explaining that he wasn’t caught up in the political tension surrounding his parents. The other continued to ignore the entire event. However, the mere acknowledgement of past grievances by the first grandchild helped ease the tension.

The second child hardly had an atypical reaction. Even in the nation outside of the classroom there existed a desire to ignore the former dictatorship. “People just didn’t want to hear about it,” she added. 8 This example from Paraguay underscores the need for constructive dialogue, as in critical pedagogy, after periods of conflict.

As Corkalo 9 advises conflict should not be ignored, but be used as a trigger for further dialogue. He explains, “[In some countries] there [was] no history and practice of looking at conflict as a potential for social change...Conflict was always defined as unacceptable.” He iterates that peace education in these situations has two goals: to teach that conflict can be used as a constructive tool for social change and to promote the idea of diversity as in the common interest of divergent groups. He expands, “...unhealed traumas from the past could be misused as fertile ground for incitement of chauvinism and national hatred.”

After conflict it is necessary to repair relationships between nations or ethnic groups. Stereotypes must be addressed; the narrative of the other must be recognized; and reconciliation must begin. Using critical pedagogy as a means to repair these relationships can contribute to true societal change; citizens will be given the chance to process past bigotry and more critically examine future hostilities. “Liberation is a praxis: the action and reflection of men and women upon their world in order to transform it.” 10 The process involved in participating in critical dialogue promotes essential skills for creating this transformation as described below.

Critical Skills for Peace Education

I am more and more convinced that educational praxis, while avoiding the trap of puritanical moralism, cannot avoid the task of becoming a clear witness to decency and purity. That is, it cannot avoid the task of being a permanent critique of the easy solutions that tempt us away from the true path that we need to construct and follow. 11

Societal transformation begins with individuals. Critical pedagogy works with individuals in group settings not to pass knowledge from one individual to the group, but to examine old knowledge critically and create new knowledge. Therefore, critical pedagogy should first seek to encourage curiosity. According to Freire, “Curiosity is relentless questioning, as movement toward a revelation of something hidden, as a question verbalized or not, as a search for clarity, as a moment of attention, suggestion, and vigilance…human curiosity…is a permanent process of social and historical construction or reconstruction.” Certain elements must be present in an educational situation for true critical pedagogy to occur: trust, mutual respect, recognition of social conditioning, and willingness to reflect on one’s situation. 12

Freire rethinks the concept of the teacher and the student. The teacher isn’t in a classroom to impart knowledge. “Teaching” isn’t about placing judgments concerning the decisions or values of the “student.” It’s about encouraging students to become curious about their situation in life and how and who determined where they are and how they live. It is about students critically analyzing their personal beliefs and the sources of those beliefs through group dialogue. Respect of the varied historical, political, social, and cultural backgrounds of the student is essential to authentic dialogue.

According to Peter Pericles Trifonas, “Being critical entails finding faults in arguments, watching for fallacies of logic, gauging reliability, distinguishing authority, judging evidence, and so on,” basically, the development of skills of empowerment. These critical thinking skills seem essential to de-mythologizing a society after conflict, and progressively preventing a society from being thrust into a new conflict by encouraging decisions based on rational thought rather than political ideologies.

Recognition of social conditioning is another vital element of critical pedagogy. 13 People are socially conditioned from birth. Freire emphasizes, however, that social conditioning does not mean that existence is predetermined. People must learn to critically analyze what is influencing their actions and beliefs: this analysis allows for a critical awareness of obstacles.

“Reflection upon situationality is reflection about the very condition of existence…. The more the group divides and reintegrates the whole, the more closely they approach the nuclei of the principle and secondary contradictions which involve the inhabitants of the area.” 14 This reflection will lead to questions about the limits and values that have evolved through socialization and begin to offer a new reality.

This recognition of social conditioning can result in discomfort. Boler and Zembylas’s 515 “pedagogy of discomfort” stresses the necessity for educators to move outside of their comfort zones. The purpose is to move beyond consensual social practices and examine embedded habits and assumptions. For example, instead of exploring the idea of multiculturalism, the idea of power relationships must be critically examined. The latter concept is much more controversial and will create a discomfort that will contribute to a transformative dialogue.

Boler and Zembylas explained, “A pedagogy of discomfort invites not only members of the dominant culture but also members of marginalized cultures to reexamine the hegemonic values inevitably internalized in the process of being exposed to curriculum and media that serve the interests of the ruling class.” 16 Critical examination of the media during post-conflict times is essential to an analysis of ideological production. As students become more critical they will be better able to recognize the techniques of political indoctrination and to determine their own ideals based upon their personal ethics and morals.

Analyzing stereotypes and simplistic representations of ethical issues can begin the process of deconstructing the mythical reality of war and of the adversary. “The educator and the students are now placed at the origin of all the activities of laboring—this is a pedagogy that invites as many new fears as it inspires projects of inventions,” continues Boler and Zembylas. 17 The obligation is on the student to reassess his or her thoughts and beliefs about the conflict and those involved in the conflict. As Freire observes in a summary of his philosophy, “The important thing, from the point of view of libertarian education, is for the people to come to feel like masters of their thinking by discussing the thinking and views of the world explicitly or implicitly manifest in their own suggestions and those of their comrades.” 18

Practice of Critical Pedagogy for Peace

One of the basic questions that we need to look at is how to convert merely rebellious attitudes into revolutionary ones in the process of the radical transformation of society. Merely rebellious attitudes or actions are insufficient, though they are an indispensable response to legitimate anger. It is necessary to go beyond rebellious attitudes to a more radically critical and revolutionary position, which is in fact a position not simply denouncing injustice but of announcing a new utopia. 19

The following scenario describes how a typical peace education lesson based on critical pedagogy might proceed. Freire’s concepts of the teacher as a participant, but not as a giver of knowledge, that all people must construct their own reality based upon their own experiences, and that people must recognize their own social conditioning and biases are essential to the following scenario. The participating group must build an open, accepting atmosphere in which every student participates and feels free to ask questions of each other. All assumptions should be questioned so that individuals may develop critical thinking skills and be liberated from social conditioning.

Students, adult or youth in or out of a school environment, of diverse backgrounds should be brought together to form a dialogue group. The activities to build comfort and trust might have to be spread over a period of time in areas of systemic, deep distrust. Exactly who would participate in these groups would have to be determined by the particular complexities of the conflict. Perhaps in some areas youth representing dual sides of the conflict would be represented within the same group. In areas where this would prevent participation, it might be best to begin with dialogue groups in which each group is able to reflect separately and will be brought together at a later time after each has had time to process their own biases and narratives. 20

1. The conversation should begin with an “ice breaker,” an activity to reduce tensions. This activity should not be competitive or break the group into competitive teams, but should require lighthearted discussions or interactions.

2.     Following this introductory activity, a conversation should begin with the group leader instigating discussion about the general vision of the group. The participants should contribute to a shared vision that will become an inspiration for dialogue. This collective vision doesn’t have to be completed during the first discussion. It should be clear that this work is a work in progress and should be revisited and revised.

3.     Participants should then be asked to think about their environment; specifically, they should consider what factors need to be in place for their vision to come to fruition. The group should generate a list of guidelines for the expectations of interpersonal interactions. How should conversations be conducted? What happens when people disagree? This is basically a time for the group to develop a protocol to ease interactions and to further develop a sense of trust and purpose. Students should be reassured that this is also a work in process. As issues come to their attention, problems can be discussed and revisions can be made.

4.     The group would next participate in an activity that allows them to practice their established protocol, but without the tension and discomfort that will come with later activities. Following the activity, it is important to discuss the process (what went well with the activity and in what ways the process could be improved). This practice of reflection is used as better preparation for future activities and contributes to building the practice of critical thinking.

5.     When the protocol has been practiced and is running more smoothly, then activities that trigger greater tension can be introduced. This is the “pedagogy of discomfort” Boler and Zembylas 21 described as necessary for real dialogue and change. One example of this type of activity could be as follows. The session leader could present a picture to the group of a person dressed as the societal elite talking to a group of lower class people. The students are then asked to describe what is happening in the picture (if the group is literate then this could initially be done in writing). The job of the teacher and the students is to listen and respectfully question why the students draw the conclusions they do. The assumptions noticed will become the fodder for further reflection. This process may be repeated several times before students (or the teacher) feel as though it is done constructively.

Different activities would be planned for each group session depending on the interests of the group and the specific context of the situation. The group could examine statistical data regarding socio-economic status, view a documentary, or invite a speaker to participate in a discussion regarding a particular issue.

One role-play designed by students at the Harvard Graduate School of Education 22 was examining race and class assumptions in U.S. schools. Each student was given a name and a description of a fictitious person randomly. The students had to place themselves in a school according to where they thought that student would be (the bathroom, the classroom, the hallway, or skipping class). Following the activity the students respectfully discussed the placement of their characters by discussing why they positioned themselves in that area of the school. For example, one student might be described as a black male who lives with a single mother who was a high school dropout and is on welfare. The participant decided that this student was skipping class. He justified this placement by assessing the race of the character and his mother’s educational and career background. This provided an opportunity for the group to examine race assumptions that they may or may not have considered before; it simply gave the group an opportunity to question their own beliefs more closely.

Another possibility would have students watch media reports about the recent conflict and discuss controversial statements. Did the report seem to present both sides of the story? Do any of the claims seem unwarranted? What was the effect of the news report on the viewers? What emotions were elicited?

The most important aspect of the lesson is the critical dialogue concerning issues directly affecting the students by bringing their cultural and social assumptions into the open for reflection.

6. The final step in the process would include reflecting on the insights gained and the process as a whole. What did the students learn? What questions do they now have? How did they feel during the process? How is the dialogue process working? Does the process need to be altered to help the activity become more effective or run more smoothly? Did their conversation contribute to their collective vision? What are the implications of their new insights?

7. A final optional activity might involve having the students keep a journal about their experiences. They could be asked to include some of their insights and questions or describe situations related to the day’s conversations that they would like to reflect on. Students should be given the option to share their journals or to keep them private.

An example of a dialogue using the situation of South Africa after apartheid could go as follows: The group of rural, white South Africans has previously met and has already built a degree of trust and camaraderie. There might be a brief review of the group vision and protocol. The group, in this example a school group, is reading a story about a black South African student wanting to go to a formerly all-white school. “I think she shouldn’t be allowed because white schools are very different from black schools.” Another student, “Of course, she should be allowed to attend. The laws have changed and it is legal. We shouldn’t break the law.” “Well, I don’t think the laws should’ve changed. My parents said that this will ruin our country.” “Why does she want to come to a white school anyway? Why would she want to go where she was so different from everyone else there?”

At that point the teacher might pause the conversation to question assumptions. “Let’s go back to our group vision statement. We are here because we want to live in a nation of peace, right? So let’s try to critically examine why some of us feel like this is right and some of us think it is wrong. Let’s first consider the two sides of the argument.” The groups would then work to come up with reasons to support each side of the argument. The students are then asked to share their arguments with the rest of the group. The students are allowed time to respond and to question each other about their beliefs and assumptions.

Perhaps the list would look something like as follows.

Should be allowed to attend.

Should not be allowed to attend.

She is human

· The law says it is legal.

· If I were in her place, I would want to be able to choose.

· People are really the same.

· We’ll be able to get to know each other better.

· Some schools are better than others and she should be able to choose the best school.

· It has always been this way.

· People might fight.

· People might be mean to her.

· It will ruin our country to mix everyone together.

· People’s parents might not want them to go to that school anymore.

It will then be up to the class to go through the reasons and examine the underlying assumptions. The teacher could provide texts that reflect the struggle of black South Africans to achieve equal status. The group could split into teams to exam similar situations following desegregation in the United States, such as the story of Ruby Bridges, or to interview other people on their thoughts of desegregation. As the students begin to become more aware of the struggle of their fellow South Africans, they may add or take away reasons from the above table.

At the end of the meeting it is unlikely that the group will have come to full consensus. Remember, full consensus isn’t the goal, helping students to think critically about accepted beliefs and situations are. The teacher might return to this discussion at a later time by inviting a black South African who participated in the struggle to end apartheid to talk to the class.

And the conversation would continue. The students may or may not admit all of their biases in this conversation, but over the course of many conversations students are questioning their own values and looking at themselves more critically.

Programs based on critical pedagogy might be difficult to implement large-scale, due to the intense teacher training that would be critical to program success. It is also unlikely that some governments would support critical pedagogy to scale since strong critical thinking would make it more difficult to promote mythic wars and might lead to increased criticism from citizenry concerning their decisions. However, grassroots programs could have a very positive impact in areas of social conflict among people of discordant racial or ethnic backgrounds or other disparate groups.

The process described is the author’s vision of a lesson based upon Freire’s theory of critical pedagogy. It is meant to serve as one example of how a lesson might progress. This is meant to be a flexible process; it should be altered to fit the situation at hand. The essential elements of any activity intending to impact a cultural transformation are trust, respect, and curiosity. Most lessons will be effective if those elements are present.

Vision of Critical Pedagogy for Peace

One of the first kinds of knowledge indispensable to the person who arrives in a ghetto or in a place marked by betrayal of our right ‘to be’ is the kind of knowledge that becomes solidarity, becomes ‘being with.’ In that context, the future is seen not as inexorable but as something that is constructed by people engaged together in life, in history. It’s the knowledge that sees history as possibility and not as already determined. The world is not finished. It is always in the process of becoming. 23

Generational conflict, growing dissension due to globalization and capitalism, and increasing extreme nationalism indicate that revolutionary change needs to happen in our society. Critical pedagogy is one way to begin to transform society for more peaceful relations between formerly divergent groups.

The technique of critical pedagogy is about restoring a society that has been broken by conflict, confronting stereotypes, and examining assumptions about the formerly oppositional group. According to Freire, “Cultural revolution takes the total society to be reconstructed.” Working with students as if the teacher is the knowledge-giver and the student the receiver of knowledge will not instigate permanent transformation. Only when the students are developing their own theories and questioning their own beliefs and assumptions will they begin to see their place in the world as revolutionary.

Endnotes

[1] Giroux, Henry. “Rage & Hope: Critical Pedagogy” http://www.perfectfit.org/CT/giroux2.html
Cited April 2, 2004.
[2] Freire, Paulo. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum. P. 45.